Subject: warrior-raider
Setting: American Southwest mid-late 19thc
Evolution:
Context (Event Photos, Primary Sources, Secondary Sources, Field Notes)
* Cantley 2012 p9
"Apache interactions with neighboring Native peoples -- including trading, visiting, raiding and warring -- changed over time. At various points, Apache traded and made alliances with Spaniards, Mexicans and Americans. But the traditional Apache lifeway requires a great deal of land for survival. Expansion of settlements by both Apache and outsiders created competition for resources, which led to conflicts. For three centuries, Apache people resisted outsiders' occupation, assimilation and annihilation.
"After the 1848 war between Mexico and the United States, Americans claimed a large part of Apache territories, American ambition to exploit mineral wealth, build commercial routes to the West Coast and occupy land that had been utilized by Apache led to war.
"As part of a 'Peace Policy' starting in 1871, the U.S. government confined Apache tribes in Arizona and New Mexico to reservations. There were two basic responses by the Apache to the reservation system: People either accommodated to the regulations and restrictions as a means of survival, or they resisted, by fleeing the reservation and escaping pursuit by the American or Mexican military."
* Cantley 2012 p15-16
"INTRODUCTION TO WESTERN APACHE They called themselves Ndee or Nnee, the people, and then by their band or clan groups, for example, Juniper Tree Stands Alone People. After centuries of relations with the Spanish and Mexicans, the Americans became the 'newcomers' in 1848 at the end of the Mexican-American War. Ndee ambassadors traveled to Santa Fe to meet the new authorities. When American soldiers came into the Western Apache homelands, several of the chiefs -- Miguel, Pedro and Esh-kel-dah-silah -- met with the U.S. officers to offer peaceful access to their land. They agreed to the establishment of a military post on the White River, where Fort Apache now stands, and to a reservation incorporating much of the White Mountain and Cibecue land.
"The reservations established for the Western Apache starting in 1870 were often badly managed. Bands frequently had to leave the reservation to forage for food or to raid for needed sustenance. Soldiers pursued them and returned them to the reservation.
"In 1872, Gen. George Crook campaigned rigorously against the Dilzhe'e (Tonto Apache), utilizing scouts recruited from other Western Apache groups. The government placed survivors on reservations. Beginning in 1875, the federal government began extinguishing most reservations, forcing most Western Apache, Chiricahua and Yavapai, who were not an Apache people, into concentration camps on a single reservation at San Carlos. The stated objective was to more easily control the tribes and to protect American settlements. In reality, it opened up land for American farmers and ranchers. At the same time, the concentration of more than 5,000 people from sometimes hostile tribes on foreign land created an environment of fear and uncertainty for the Western Apache, Chiricahua and Yavapai."
* Goodwin/Basso 1971 p17 [PLAGIARIZED: Hook/Hook 1987 p12]
"The Western Apache drew a sharp distinction between 'raiding' (literally: 'to search out enemy property') and 'warfare' ('to take death from an 'enemy'). As translation of the native terms suggests, raiding expeditions were organized for the primary purpose of stealing material goods, preferably livestock. War parties, on the other hand, had as their main goal to avenge the death of a kinsman who at some earlier time had lost his life in battle."
* Hook/Hook 1987 p13
"War parties were organized to avenge the deaths of Apache raiders, or Apache families killed by other tribes' raiding parties. The deceased's relatives initiated the organisation of the war party. They called for the war party -- especially kinsmen of the slain Apache -- from other local groups to meet at an arranged rendezvous. Here a war ceremony was conducted, called 'stiff hide spread on the ground' by the Western Apache. A shaman versed in the supernatural songs and ceremonials of war conducted prayers exhorting success for, and blood lust in, the warriors, who sang softly and joined the dancing to signify their participation in the war party."
* Hook/Hook 1987 p33-35
"Reservations were established at Fort Apache for the Cibecue and northern White Mountain; at Camp Verde for the northern and southern Tonto; and at Camp Grant for the San Carlos and southern White Mountain divisions of the Western Apache tribe. Outbreaks and raids continued, however; and in 1872 Crook embarked on his Tonto Basin campaign. He used the tactics which were to prove so successful in subduing the Apaches, most particularly by using Apache scouts to harass the hostiles tirelessly, and to demonstrate that they had no place to hide. It became a popular saying that only an Apache could catch an Apache, and Crook once commented: 'To polish a diamond, there is nothing like its own dust'."
Knife
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