Subject: 知縣 zhīxiàn mandarin as local magistrate
Culture: Sino-Manchurian
Setting: late Qing empire, China 19thc
Context (Event Photos, Primary Sources, Secondary Sources, Field Notes)
"The word 'Mandarin' is not of Chinese but of Malay-Portuguese origin and is a Western term for the high state officials in Imperial China during the Ming and Qing dynasties.
"In Western usage, a mandarin is a civilian official who worked in the administration of the state during the Chinese Empire, especially during the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties. Occasionally, officers of the imperial military are also referred to by this term.
"Mandarins were scholars, judges and civil servants who served in all areas of the Chinese administration. Their office and the titles and ranks associated with it were awarded to them after years of elite training. They were subjected to a rigorous selection and examination system that was intended to guarantee that the administration of the country was carried out only by the most learned and capable minds.
"Each mandarin's performance of his or her duties and qualifications was strictly controlled on a regular basis. In the lowest rank they worked as teachers in schools, in the highest ranks they were influential and much respected administrators, advisors and scholars, but also heralds and diplomats in the name and on behalf of the emperor."
* Feuerwerker 1976 p61
"Cases under the penal law in the first instance were tried by the local magistrate, who could pronounce and execute sentence only in minor cases, that is, if the penalty were no more than beating. In all more serious cases the magistrate could make only provisional findings and refer the cases to the prefect who in turn transmitted them to the provincial judicial commissioner (an-ch'a shih). Judgments made by the judicial commissioner required the concurrence of the governor and governor-general. Cases of homicide and those in which the possible punishment was more severe than imprisonment were required to be referred by the province to the Board of Punishments which exercised final jurisdiction in all matters except cases punishable by death. These were decided by a body known collectively as the Three High Courts (the Grand Court of Revision, and representatives from the Censorate and the Board of Punishments), but their judgment had to be ratified by the emperor personally."
* Feuerwerker 1976 p66
"There may appear to be a contradiction between the references just made to numerous underlings and the statement that the chou and hsien magistrates were the lowest officials in the hierarchy of imperial government. The latter implies that China was only superficially governed at the local level, while the former suggests a plenitude of attention. What I mean to suggest is not that there was no 'government' in Chinese society below the district level, but rather that imperial control of that 'government' through the person of the magistrate was indeed often superficial. His responsibilities were all-encompassing, but his omnipotence was only theoretical. Even more than his sovereign whose relations with his official servants -- the bureaucracy -- were sometimes ambiguous, the magistrate -- by law a stranger in the district he was sent to govern, and a short-term resident too -- could be a a captive of local interests rather than their master.
"At times the magistrate might not even know the local dialect. he certainly was not familiar with local problems and rarely had time in the usual three-year incumbency to overcome that handicap. To meet the tax quotas, to maintain order, to adjudicate the civil and criminal cases presented to him, to handle the enormous quantity of paperwork which the administrative code required in the exercise of these functions -- to do his job well, he was dependent on the day-to-day functioning of numerous clerks, messengers, guards, doormen, police, and servants and on the goodwill and cooperation of the local elite. Only to a limited extent could he and his personal servants and advisers understand or control the local interests, which might themselves be in collusion, represented by those two groups of permanent residents of his district."
* Zelin 1984 p47-48
"As the official closest to the people, the magistrate bore the main responsibility for funneling the wealth of the countryside into the coffers of local government. It was he who collected most of the empire's taxes, including the land and head tax. The magistrate was also the issuing agent for local merchant licenses and contract and deed certificates and was the collection agent for a number of commercial taxes. He compiled the tax and census registers, collected contributions from local wealthy households, and in some cases supervised the sale of salt, tea, and other government monopolies. As such, the official assigned to govern a chou or hsien was in a unique position to manipulate the legal tax structure in order to generate the extralegal revenues that allowed the massive Chinese bureaucracy to function.
"Few magistrates engaged in overt extortion of large sums of money from the people. The methods used were more subtle, and the amount taken from any one source was usually small. The two most commonly employed means to acquire extra funds were the levying of surcharges (chia-p'ai, ssu-p'ai, k'o-p'ai) and 'collecting more and reporting less' (cheng-to pao-shao)."
"The system of governance over the centuries became corrupt and inefficient. It remained heavily centralized with limited local autonomy. The system had by then accumulated 98 different grades of official. To make fun of this over complex system a board game 升官图 Shēng guān tú was played which was similar to ‘snakes and ladders’ where players rolled dice to try to reach the top grade. (Zhuàng yuán chóu 状元筹 was another game named after the top graded official).
"An official came to be paid barely enough to live on and so in order to maintain a decent standard of living he took bribes and a cut of all the taxes within his jurisdiction. The low salary may have discouraged neglect and indolence but it did lead to corruption - particularly by inventing local taxes. This was a significant factor in the downfall of the Qing, the system of control had become too corrupt to rigorously institute the necessary reforms. The examination system had also become tainted with rich families able to buy qualifications for their sons.
"In the Qing the Imperial Administration (called Nèi wù fǔ 内务府) the Manchu nobles held the top posts became very powerful and corrupt. Their sole source of income was the Imperial budget and so a hundred people may have been paid to do a job requiring just one person. The officials understood their predicament and successfully resisted reforms to reduce the expenditure and the size of the Imperial household. Officials came to expect to take a sizable proportion of all money that passed through their hands. Everyone colluded with the system to inflate Imperial costs and take their cut. They acted in self interest rather than the best interests of the emperor or the country.
"The import of cheap, strong British opium had a devastating effect on the Imperial Civil Service because the officials became hopelessly addicted to it and so had the effect of paralyzing administration. (A hard-hitting satire on the woeful state of late Qing dynasty at this time was written by the reformist writer Lao She in 1933)."
Costume
* Racinet 1988 p82
"Mandarins are the public officials of civil and military rule, graded according to the importance of their work and decorated with the insignia of their grade. The official dress consists of a robe embroidered with dragons or serpents. It is fastened with a belt and partly covered by a shorter, more austere robe, over which a cape is worn.
"The decoration awarded by the emperor for military or civil service are: first, the yellow robe and the peacock feather -- given only to the highest dignitaries; and next, the lan-lin feather. Soldiers who distinguish themselves are allowed to wear a fox's tail."
* 5000 years of Chinese costumes 1988 p172
"The Qing mandarins' outer garments were mostly dyed azurite -- a reddish black colour. In addition, in the middle of both the front and the back part was a patch of cloth. The garment was therefore called 'patch gown' or 'patched clothes'. The patches, following the Ming dress system, were usually embroidered with the forms of animals: birds for civil officials and animals for military officers."
* 5000 years of Chinese costumes 1988 p182 f3
"Costume and adornment for ranked civil and military officers including the court hat, the hat and costume for festive occasions, the robe with embroidered square patch at mid-front and back, the court robe and the python robe. Rank was distinguished by the jewel on the top of the hat, and the design of the patched garment and python robe. The jewels were as follows: ruby for the 1st rank, coral for the 2nd, sapphire for the 3rd. Lapis lazuli for the 4th, crystal for the 5th, tridacna shell for the 6th, gold for the 7th, gold top with incised inscriptions for the 8th, and gold top with Chinese characters cut in relief for the 9th. Those without jewels on their hats were non-ranked officials and officers. The ornaments worn on hats for festive occasions were about the same as those for the court hats, but at the back of the former there were quills of different colours for different ranks. Specifically, officials and officers of 6th rank or under used blue quills, while those of 5th rank or above used peacock quills. The python robes could be blue or azurite in colour. For 1st to 3rd rank the robe was embroidered with nine five-clawed pythons; for 4th to 6th, eight four-clawed pythons; and for 7th to 9th, five four-clawed pythons. From princes down, all ranked personages wore azurite-coloured robes with embroidered square patches. For civil officials the patches were embroidered with birds, while for military officers they were embroidered with animals. As far as shape was concerned, patches for relatives of the emperor were either round or square. The embroidered birds were as follows: a crane for the 1st rank, golden pheasant for the 2nd, peacock for the 3rd, wild goose for the 4th, lophura for the 5th, egret for the 6th, violet mandarin ducks for the 7th, quail for the 8th and long-tailed flycatch for the 9th. With regard to the kinds of embroidered animals for military officers, qi ling (Chinese unicorn) was for the 1st rank, lion for the 2nd, leopard for the 3rd, tiger for the 4th, bear for the 5th, young tiger for the 6th, rhinoceros for the 7th and 8th, and sea horse for the 9th."
* Traditional Chinese costumes 2002 p24
"The ceremonial gowns worn by government officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties bore a square embroidered patch on the breast and back, respectively. The patterns of the patches distinguished the status and ranks of the civil and military officials. The gowns of the civil officials were decorated with birds such as red-crowned cranes and golden pheasants; and the military officials wore patches with representations of fierce animals such as lions, tigers and leopards. Hats also served to differentiate the official ranks by means of pearl buttons on the top, peacock feathers and red tassels."
Fan
* Racinet 1988 p82 f2.1 caption
"A mandarin dressed in everyday summer clothes. As custom dictates, he is holding a fan in one hand and a handkerchief in the other."
* Common knowledge about Chinese culture 2008 p195
"The folding fan is the most common in China. It is convenient to carry and handsome to look at. Hangzhou is the most famous place for producing fans in China. The frame of the Hangzhou folding fan is usually made of precious materials. The famous black paper fan, sandalwood fan and ivory fan are not only the notable products among Chinese fans but also famous around the world."
* Yang 1999 p54
"Fan (Shan, 扇). Fans used by martial artists were made of wood (bamboo and other kinds), or more commonly, metal. The outer edge was extremely sharp, and often spring-loaded darts were hidden in the ribs.
"Fans were perhaps the most easily hidden weapons, because they could be kept in plain sight. A martial artist with a fan in his hand could at one moment be the elegant scholar, and in the next, a deadly fighter.
"Fans, with their razor-sharp edges, could be used to cut, strike or slide. Spring-loaded darts were utilized for surprise attacks. In China, fans are both practical and beautiful, and their use began very early in Chinese history."
* Wilson 1986 p77
"Pleated fans ... would concertina shut to fit into decorated silk cases. Many of these fan cases are bound with true braid as opposed to the ribbon edging found on Chinese women's garments. Rigid fans with handles in a variety of shapes and materials were used by both sexes. When they were not using them, men were able to tuck these into their belts, or into the top flap of their gowns."
* Tai chi Tanglang killing fanplay 1984 p3
"A fan can be used as a weapon simply because it has such advantages as handiness, pleasant appearance and the fact that it is easily neglected. Most of the warriors who used fans as their weapons were well versed in both polite letters and martial arts adn they were both bold and natural. A fan in the hand is available both for cooling oneself and for self-defence. However, a fan used as a weapon has a different construction from a general paper fan in that its ribs are made of a metal and its covering is made of silk fabric instead of paper so as to make it tough and tensile."
Rosary
* Museo do Oriente
"Os colares de corte, ou chaozhu, baseados nos mala ('rosários' budistas), eram usados apenas pela nobreza e por oficiais imperials do quinto grau e superiores. Oseu uso for provavelmente introduzido pelo primeiro imperador da dinastia Qing, Shunzhi (1638-1661?), que era um profundo devoto do budismo."
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"The Court collars or chaozhu, based on the Buddhist rosaries (mala), were only used by the nobility and imperial officials from the fifth degree and above. Their use was most probably introduced by the first Emperor of the Qing Dynasty, Shunzhi (1638-1661?) who was a deeply devout Buddhist."
* Secret splendors of the Chinese court 1980 p60
"The mandarin chain was developed from a Tibetan rosary sent in 1643 by the Dalai Lama to the Manchu ruler. To make the chain uniquely Manchu, a long drop extension, which served as a counterweight to the chain as well as an ornament, was added to the back. Three counting strings were further Manchu embellishments. Dynamic laws and regulations determined the appropriate occasions for wearing these chains and who was entitled to wear them. Materials for the beads were specified according to rank and the particular occasion. Men wore one chain with formal court dress ...."
* 5000 years of Chinese costumes 1988 p182-183 f3
"All civil officials of 5th rank upwards and military officials of 4th rank upwards, as well as judicial officials and high-ranking imperial bodyguards, were also required to wear necklaces consisting of 108 beads threaded together. Each necklace had 3 strings of smaller bead necklaces attached to it. For men there were two strings on the left, and for women the same number on the right. There was yet another string of beads called bei yun (or 'black cloud'), which hung down the wearer's back."
* Wilson 1986 p29 (describing a Qing military official)
"His insignia are completed by a long loop of beads, having four shorter straight strings attached to it, three falling to the front and one down the back. Surviving necklaces in this style are made from various precious and semi-precious stones, glass, coral and enamelled metal."
Saber
* Tom/Rodell 2005 p77
"The saber is perhaps the most important member of the dao family. It completely replaced the double-edged jian in the military by the mid-Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), and it has been used in virtually all systems of Chinese weapons combat until the present day. The pei dao also held a revered position in the regalia of nobility and military officialdom during the Qing (Manchu) Dynasty, which reigned from 1644-1911."
Ingot
* Power and glory 2008 p49 f16
"From the mid-Ming dynasty, gold, as well as tax collections increasingly fell into the hands of local officials or delegates and eunuchs from the central government who exploited opportunities to obtain luxuries. That resulted in large amounts of gold held in private households outside the court. High-ranking people, landlords, eunuchs, and merchants gained status by amassing gold."
* Hansen 2015 p406 caption
"Because the Qing dynasty did not mint silver coins, silver circulated in lumps of different sizes, often in the shape of a horse's hoof and called a tael. A single tael was supposed to weigh 1.3 ounces or 37.3 g, but users had to check each time that money changed hands because there was no standardization."
"A tael (simplified: 两, traditional: 兩, pinyin: liǎng, jyutping: loeng5) was a traditional Chinese unit of weight and currency used throughout the jianghu and imperial China. The tael served as both a measure of weight, particularly for precious metals, and as a unit of currency in the Chinese monetary system.
"... The tael was one of the primary units of currency in traditional China, used for transactions involving silver and other precious metals. In the jianghu, taels were commonly used for payments, rewards, and various financial transactions, reflecting the importance of silver as a medium of exchange.
"The tael’s dual function as both a weight and currency unit made it central to economic activity in the jianghu, where transactions often involved silver and other precious metals."
Bottle
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Stationery
* McClung Museum of Natural History & Culture online > Treasures of the Chinese Scholar
"The traditional Chinese scholar spent years studying the ancient classics and philosophical treatises while immersing himself in the moral principles of Confucianism. These pursuits prepared the scholar for a rigorous Civil Service Examination. Passing this examination allowed him to enter government service, which was a key to a life of privilege, social status, politics, and aesthetics.
"In the studio the scholar isolated himself from others, finding the calm necessary for study and contemplation. It was in the studio that he studied Confucian classics, wrote poetry, played music, practiced calligraphy, and perhaps painted. Objects important in the pursuit of these activities included writing utensils and desk accessories. There were also objects used for making and serving tea, a beverage thought to stimulate intellectual and social discourse. And there were decorative objects for the scholar as well. While these pieces appear to have either a utilitarian or decorative purpose, they also provided philosophical and moral inspiration through their symbolic content."
* Bowers Museum 2022-01-20 online
"Through the past 2,000 years of Chinese intellectualism, Chinese scholars have been greatly respected for their dedication to the study of philosophy, classical literature, poetry, and the teachings of Confucius. A scholar’s area was meant to be a quiet, private place where one could study such topics and where the fine arts of calligraphy, painting, writing, and music were practiced. The tools and furnishings that were placed on a scholar’s desk were as refined and sophisticated as the intertwined pursuits of writing and calligraphy they were used to practice. Ink, inkstone, brush, and paper were so essential to the scholar they were known as the Four Treasures of the Scholar’s Studio."
