Subject: mantri nobleman leader of barisan mercenary force
Culture: Madurese
Setting: Madura/north Java 18th-early 19thc
Context (Event Photos, Period Sources, Secondary Sources, Field Notes)
* van Duuren 1998 p69-70
"In the middle of the eighteenth century, Java was a country torn by revolts and wars against the Dutch United East India Company. After a racist bloodbath in Batavia, in which over ten thousand Chinese colonists were murdered, there was pandemonium in the island. From the west, Chinese military gangs marched all across Java, seeking for allies among the Javanese. The Central Javanese sultanate of Mataram, which maintained unstable relations with the Dutch authorities, recognized its opportunity and joined with the rebels. In many places they incited the people to rise, and Chinese-Javanese soldiers besieged Dutch settlements and bastions. Suddenly, princes and chiefs who had up to this point remained loyal, were preaching the Holy War, and the power of the Dutch became restricted to the range of their artillery. The situation was now so precarious that allies from the other Indonesian islands had to be deployed in restoring order in Java. Except for the Macassarese of South Sulawesi, these were the as yet independent Madurese, under the leadership of their prince Cakaningrat IV. The latter could in fact hardly wait. He had dreamed of territorial expansion in East Java for years, and so, with the silent approval of Batavia, he set sail with a large number of troops, ready for immediate action. The Madurese were seasoned fighters, and all by themselves they vanquished one centre of resistance after another.
"Owing largely to their commitment, there was peace once again in Java.
"After that, things did not turn out for Cakaningrat as he had hoped. Batavia would not grant him the permanent expansion of territory which he had so firmly expected in return. He became recalcitrant, failed to fulfil his obligations as a Dutch vassal, and entered into, to the Dutch, undesirable alliances with the scions of local dynasties and Balinese chiefs. War again broke out on the shores of Java, and this time also in Madura itself, which was occupied by the Dutch shortly afterwards. Cakaningrat was banished to the Cape of Good Hope, all within the five years after his first appearance on the political scene as a military ally to the East India Company.
"In spite of this false start with Cakaningrat, relations between the Dutch colonial government on the one hand, and Madura on the other, remained excellent until the second World War. The Madurese regularly supplied auxiliary troops for the expeditions which the KNIL ('Royal Dutch East-Indian Army') was organizing against rebellious princes elsewhere in the archipelago. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Sultan's title was even officially granted to some Madurese princes in exchange for services rendered. Princes who had distinguished themselves in battle, were made Colonels. In 1831, the sultans of the small empires of Sumenep and Pamekasan were made Commanders in the Order of the Dutch Lion, while the Military Order of William I was also granted to them. That very year, those princes started organizing Standing Forces, composed of cavalrymen, pikemen, gunners and pioneers. After the Java War (1825-1830), many Madurese soldiers were permanently quartered in the so-called Javanese Vorstenlanden ('Lands of the Princes')."
* Ricklefs 1993 p
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* Draeger 1972 p
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* A passion for Indonesian art 1996 p48
"[M]any Madurese mercenaries were virtually in permanent service of the Susuhunan of Surakarta."
Dagger
* van Duuren 1998 p70-72
"The krisses of Madura and East Java, where many Madurese have settled ..., bear the visible imprint of these nineteenth-century exploits [Java War 1825-1830]. In these, the proud past of the Madurese auxiliaries or barisans, is instantly revealed, not by the blades, which are in general somewhat heftier than the Javanese ones, but by the hilts. Those laurelled and knighted soldiers must have taken great pride in the homage rendered to them. They expressed that pride through the hilts of their ceremonial weapons, which were given the shape of uninformed military men with helmets, braids and ribbons. These uniform hilts recapture, in diverse colourful combinations, every important element connected with the military part played by the Madurese sultans: rifles, pistols, flags, Dutch crowns, coats of arms, drums and guns. Such hilts, landhian, are known as landhian langsir or landhian plasir, which terms contain corruptions of the words 'lancer' and 'cuirassier'.
"But the landhian would not be an Indonesian kris hilt at all, had the carved motifs been restricted to Dutch military symbols.
"Except for the already mentioned ornaments, we occasionally encounter little dragons writing along the side of a helmet or a larger standing dragon, its jaws open, flanking the weapon at the front.
"Sometimes certain elements of a uniform unexpectedly turn out to have become flowers or the straight lines of tendrils. Sheath mouths form a baroque combination of a swelling surf and shells, referring to Madura's being surrounded by the sea.
"Yet the most remarkable motif seen on the Madurese kris is the winged horse, once the military trophy of the sultan of Sumenep. The horse recalls a marvellous [sic] occurrence from the reign of the legendary Jaka Tulé, prince of Sumenep and son-in-law of Brawijaya, the last king of Majapahit. This Brawijaya wanted to add a large iron gate to his palace, but as it turned out, no craftsman in all of Java was up to this task. The Madurese Tulé and his foster father Empu Keling, a master smith, had to be called for. Together they executed the imposing task, to Brawijaya's utter contentment. While the two men were still in Java, one of Brawijaya's horses escaped. No one dared approach the iritable [sic] stallion, except for the Madurese guests. When confronted by Tulé, the horse became so meek that it kneeled down and looked back at him. This got the prince his epithet and attribute: Kudah Panoleh or 'Horse Looking Back'.
"Empu Keling designed the kris with the horse with its head turned to look behind it -- which is sometimes represented kneeling and at other times standing -- on its hilt and blade. Krisses with the backward-looking horse are 'irritable', their owners are valiant and warlike. In the old days, only persons of royal or noble blood were allowed to carry krisses with the kudah panoleh. In the nineteenth century this privilege was gradually forgotten, and anyone could now have such a kris hilt made. However, not all Madurese kris hilts have military ornaments, dragons or horses. Many hilts have a purely floral design, others are like abstract human shapes entirely covered by a mass of flowers. One popular hilt from the stylistic region of East Java/Madura, has a curved shape which, save for its broadness and heaviness, would bring to mind an unfurling fern. Characteristic of this type are the transversely protruding upper part, and the over-abundance of abstract floral carving. Many of these are made of ivory or bone, which are highly popular in Madura. Ancient ivory kris hilts from Madura can be identified by their shining brown patina.
"The Madurese, like the Javanese, approached their krisses with a mixture of pride, respect and fear. They were fascinated by their power, which they tried to enhance by immersing the blades in the brains and entrails of snakes and scorpions. Many old krisses with alleged special powers were deemed pusaka and added to the royal regalia. They were given names referring to the legendary occurrences in which they had distinguished themselves in the past. Krisses which had miraculously eliminated thieves or enemies, became celebrated most of all. For instance: in a long-since forgotten battle a king had subjugated heavy rains with the aid of a particular kris. So that kris became entitled 'The Lord Rain Conqueror', and was worshipped as a sacred and mighty object. Ye as early as the nineteenth century, the heyday of the Madurese kris was over. Brahmatama, the last weapon smith in the employ of the prince of Sumenep, had died long before the end of that century. None of his descendants possessed his expertise with pamor."
* Frey 1988 p46
"Krises from the island of Madura are frequently fitted with ivory hilts carved in intricate floral patterns. The mode, called gaya kembang (flower style) is unique in that these hilts are further adaptations of the severely stylized Javanese hilt. This seems to be a reversal of the typical stylizing sequence, because here a new style has emerged which is equivalent in originality and detail to the old form. The handsome Madura hilts most often show overall floral carving -- tendrils, leaves and blossoms filling every space. Others are done with an eye to geometry and show orderly design elements of chevrons, spaced leafy sprays, knobby grids, and sometimes, a Chinese key border. Occasionally a strangely abstracted face, barely discernible, can be made out in the details of the carving.
"It is difficult to separate some Madura figural hilts from similar Java hilts. Generally, ivory Madura hilts are bent over more; the themes are usually abstracted demi-god figures, sometimes animals, rather than subjects from mythology. The Madura ivory carving is better executed. European motifs are often found. The hilt may be capped with a Greek helmet, it may display a panoply of pole-arms, epaulets may be discerned at its 'shoulders'. A crown or winged horse displayed frontally is frequent. They are said to be symbols of the royal house but one should not so assume if the carving is of ordinary or inferior quality."
* Aspects of Indonesian culture 1979 p62
"The kris is a magical weapon surrounded by ceremonies and legends. Even nowadays when cleaned once a year it is drawn with prayers, treated with oil, perfume and incense and stored in silk. It is supposed to have a power of its own, as for example the evil kris Kyai Gondong which stole off at night to search out a victim and drink its blood. The Madurese increased the power of the kris by bathing it in the bowels and brains of scorpions and snakes."
* von Duuren 1998 p35
"The Madurese ... rubbed their kris blades with the brains and intestines of serpents in order to make them extra powerful."
Sickle
* Draeger 1972 p76
"The arit, or sickle weapon, has many variations on Madura. The tjelurit; the bulu ajam (chicken feather); the arit lanchar (fluent); and the arit biasa (common) are some of the most well-known types in use. They are all generally longer and more curved in blade design than the arit of Java. Sickle tactics employ both the single blade or two, one held in each hand. By a continuous series of circular criss-cross patterns of swinging, this vicious blade is difficult to defend against; combined with the pisau few venture to combat against it. The deadly arit can be swung over the shoulder, under the armpit, or between the legs to catch a rear-closing enemy off guard."
* Ensiklopedi busaya nasional p59
"CELURIT, atau clurit adalah senjata tajam yang berasal dari daerah Madura, yang kemudian tersebar juga di daerah Jawa Timur bagian timur dan pulau-pulau di sekitar pulau Madura. Senjata ini bentuknya menyerupai arit atau sabut, tetapi pada bagian lengkung di ujung lebih panjang dan lebih runcing. Celurit pada mulanya dibuat sebagai alat serba guna untuk petani. Tetapi dalam perkembangannya kemudian celurit juga digunakan sebagai senjata dan bahkan menjadi pusaka keluarga yang turun-temurun.
"Sebagian besar celurit terbuat dari bahan besi dan baja saja, tetapi ada pula yang dibuat dengan mencampurkan bahan pamor. Celurit kemudian digolongkan pula pada jenis tosan aji. Bahkan ada pula yang diberi hiasan pahatan berukir, terutama di bagian pangkal dan di bagian karahnya.
"Hingga sekarang di pulau Madura masih berkembang beberapa jurus untuk dimainkan dengan celurit. Senjata ini tidak mengenal jenis warangka (sarung) penutup yang khusus. Pada umumnya celurit disimpan dalam keadaan 'telanjang' saja."
* Steel and magic 2020 p93
"Sickles in different sizes were originally used - primarily on Java, Madura, and Sumatra - as improvised weapons, but were then later integrated as a weapon category of their own into Malay martial arts, similar to the sickle-shaped weapons of Okinawa and China. The longer ones ... are usually found on Madura, and if attached to a pole are labeled arit lancar."
* National cultural encyclopaedia p59
"CELURIT, or clurit is a kind of pointed weapons [SIC] from Madura, it is also known in East Java and some islands around Madura. Its model is similar to arit or sabit, but the curved part at the point is longer. In the first time, this weapon was used by farmers as a multiple purposes [SIC], but in its development it is used as a weapon and pusaka (a heirloom [SIC]).
"Most clurit are made of iron, steel, but some of them are made by combining with pamor. Clurit is classified into tosan aji. Even, some are decorated, especially in the lower part and karah part.
"Upto now, in Madura there are some schools of pencak silat which use clurit. This model does not have a special warangka. Generally it is lay away in 'bare'." [SIC]
* van Zonneveld 2001 p
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Costume
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