Subject: chevalier 'horseman' knight
Culture: late medieval French
Setting: Lancastrian war / later Hundred Years War, France early-mid 15thc
Context (Event Photos, Primary Sources, Secondary Sources, Field Notes)
* Boutell 1907 p124-125
"In the reign of Philip VI., of Valois (A.D. 1328 to 1350), in France, and when in England Edward III. was king, the terrible and most unhappy hundred years' war between those countries had its commencement. Then there appeared on the scene of the great historic drama the Grandes Compagnies -- armies, that is, composed of mixed bands of mercenary soldiers who, having made a military life their profession, were always ready to enter into any service which would secure to them the highest pay, accompanied with the most attractive promise of plunder. These men, who included the natives of many countries in their ranks, knew no other interest than their personal advantages, and owed no allegiance except to themselves. In the war between England and France, they sometimes were French and sometimes English, and their standard having been determined by their paymaster. During intervals of truce, these bands carried on war, and most atrocious and cruel was their system of warfare, on their own account with the peasantry, and with such citizens that might be exposed to their attacks. They included in their numbers cavalry and infantry, men-at-arms and archers, and miscellaneous bands. Men of noble birth and high rank rode amongst them side by side with peasants, or with serfs who had escaped from vassalage. Alike in their passions, their morals, their pursuits, and their military aspect, it may easily be supposed that but slight distinction amongst them grew out of any differences there might be in their birth, their education, or their original rank."
* Bennett 1998 p72
"chevalier medieval French term for a knight, sometimes given qualifying words such as engagé (paid) or d'un écu (with heraldic arms). The French word makes it clear that an essential part of a knight's equipment was his horse (cheval). The English word 'cavalier' is derived from it."
* Boutell 1907 p151
"The celebrated warriors of France, who flourished in the 15th century, ... are universally well known. To awaken the remembrance of a thousand acts of bravery, intermingled also, unhappily, with as many of violence and rapacity, it is enough to mention the names of La Hire, Xaintrailles, D'Alençon, and Richmond; but, for the honour of the period, never let it be forgotten that the armed image of Joan of Arc (A.D. 1431) shines pure and radiant, high above them all."
Polearm
* Troso 1988 p29
"Martello la fante Ferro asimemetrico sagomato da un lato con penna a becco di falco, dall'altro con bocca a sezione quadrata piatta o variamente sagomata. In alto sull'asse dell'asta sporge una corta punta di stocco. Azione di stocco e fendente. Effetto perforante e fratturante. Il <<Martello di Lucerna>> è un martello da fante con punta di stocco piuttosto lunga e bocca del martello a sezione quadrata prolungata in quattro punte."
* Lewis 2021 p79
"The poleaxe occupies a unique position in the history of edged and percussive weapons in Western Europe. It uniquely combined an axe edge with a spike, plus a hammerhead on the side opposite the edge. But how was it used, and who used it? ....
"The poleaxe is a shorter and more rugged type of halberd, an axe on the end of a pole. Its usual form has a shorter axe blade with a straight edge and a four-pronged hammer replacing the beak. Other variations can have a convex edge, a beak and even a flat spear instead of the usual triangular one."
* Gravett 2020 p109
"By the end of the 14th century the pollaxe was ... coming into use, a staff weapon with an axe blade and top spike, backed by a hammer or spike, or else having a hammer with top and rear spike."
* Wilkinson 1971 p79
"Pole-axes, also known as ravens' bills, were popular and effective, with spikes at both ends of the shaft for thrusting, a hammer-head, and an axe-head."
* Wilkinson 1971 p59
"Along with the sword, fourteenth-century European warriors had a considerable armory at their disposal, ranging from daggers to longbows. Axes, so popular with the Danes, remained a favorite weapon both with the foot soldier and the knight, who fought on horseback and on foot. .... For foot combat it was more common for the head to be mounted at the end of a long shaft, and in order to provide extra strength for the handle, long metal arms, langets, extended from the head along its sides. The edge of the axe-head was usually curved in order to give as much leverage and cutting power as possible. Like the shorter axes, they were fitted with a spike on the head."
Sword
* Edge/Paddock 1988 p87
"As in previous centuries, the sword remained the knight's principal weapon, but from the beginning of the century new varieties started to emerge. These were designed either to deliver a very heavy cutting blow or specifically for the thrust, to deal with the ever-increasing weight and robustness of the knight's armour. Long-bladed swords of war with grips of increased length continued to be popular as they were capable of delivering a blow that could shear off a limb, but an intermediate type emerged which was designed both to cut and thrust. This had a double-edged blade which was wide at the shoulders, but which tapered rapidly to a sharp point for thrusting."
* Wilkinson 1971 p51
"Developments begun earlier continued during the fourteenth century, and specialized swords became the order of the day; indeed, some knights carried two swords. At the belt, hung a general-purpose sword with a blade designed for stabbing and slashing and fitted with a straight, or slightly downcurving, cross-guard and a pommel which was wheel- or pear-shaped. Blades tended to be longer than previously, and to compensate for the extra weight pommels were somewhat larger. Blades tapered gradually to the point and were double-edged."
* Gravett 2020 p106
"Dual-purpose weapons for cutting and thrusting were made from the beginning of the 14th century, with a tapered blade which was fullered for just over half its length, but with the lower part of the blade made in flattened diamond section. Another type of weapon has a long tapered blade, fullered for about one-third of the length, with a long grip. One group dating from about 1355 to 1425 has a long tapering blade usually of hexagonal section, and a long grip. The pommel is a flattened oval or else a late 14th-century 'scent-stopper' variety."
* Capwell 2012 p14 (describing an arming sword, French or English c.1350-1400)
"The late medieval 'arming' sword, so named because it formed part of the knight's basic equipment when he was dressed or 'armed' for battle, comprised a cruciform hilt with a circular 'wheel' pommel and a relatively short, sharply tapered cut-and-thrust blade. It was a small, light and well-balanced weapon which facilitated a fast, agile fighting style, a form of movement that in no way resembled the slow, lumbering slugging matches which tend to characterize modern misconceptions of the age of chivalry. Medieval fight masters, in fact, understood the usefulness of the thrust as a deadly mode of attack; the swords of their age bear witness to that fact, for their blades frequently display a pronounced taper towards the point, providing a very effective stabbing potential, while also retaining a strong cutting ability. The use of the thrust is well documented in pictorial sources, which from the 13th century onwards illustrate deadly stabbing attacks delivered in sword and shield (or buckler) combat."
* Boutell 1907 p152
"In the case of the sword, the changes which it underwent during this century produced a weapon that, instead of being long and narrow, was somewhat shorter, broader at the head of the blade, and gradually tapering towards the point -- a weapon, in fact, that in many respects closely resembles the sword that was in general use in the 12th century."
Armor
* Boutell 1907 p146-147
"Under Charles VI. of France (A.D. 1380 to 1422), contemporary with Richard II., Henry IV., and Henry V. of England, instead of the true pourpoint or surcoat, a short vest was worn, slightly padded, fitting tight to the figure, and having long narrow sleeves; and the chausses (breeches), which covered the rest of the body, being also tight (or elastic so as to cling to the figure), the men at a little distance appeared to be altogether destitute of all clothing, so that it was said of them that they resembled skinned rabbits -- a pleasantry that was by no means inconsistent.
"However this may be, the new substitutes for the quilted surcoat were found to leave the lower part of the body and thighs much less protected than was satisfactory. The new covering for the armour might be the fashion, but certainly it was not safe. It would be necessary to discover a remedy for this; nor would such a discovery be attended with any difficulty. A corslet of iron, formed of two pieces, was soon introduced, which enclosed and protected the body, front and back, above the waist, and as low down as the hips; this may be called a demi-cuirass. It was worn over the haubergeon, and formed a very efficient defence as far as it went. In order to complete the defence, to the lower part of this demi-cuirass there was attached a system of articulated lames, or narrow plates, in their contour adapted to cover the figure, and so arranged that each one would slightly overlap the one below it; thus was formed a species of kilt of armour, or iron petticoat, called faudes (and in England known as taces). Over the flanks, on each side of the figure, to the faudes or taces was appended a plate, or small shield, or garde-faude (in England called a tuille), which would cover the front of the thigh, and, being secured by only straps and buckles, would allow free movement to the limb. These plates (tuilles) appear in almost every variety of form -- square, hexagonal, lozenge-shaped, serrated, &c. In front, and also behind, the haubergeon was shown uncovered."
* Royal Armouries Leeds souvenir guide 2022 p27
"The 14th century was a period of transition from mail to plate armour. This was in response to developments in infantry weapons such as mail-piercing arrows, which also saw shields gradually become redundant. By 1400 knights wore suits of plate armour that were usually covered by close-fitting coloured coats (jupons). The bottom and rear of the upper legs remained unarmoured so a knight could ride his horse. By the 15th century, it was fashionable to expose the bright metal of the breastplate."
* Royal Armouries Museum > War Gallery
"Between 1300 and 1450 there were important changes in arms and armour. A long-running conflict between England and France, known as the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) contributed to the need to improve the equipment of warfare.
"During this period of frequent fighting, flexible mail was replaced by solid plate armour and firearms became a feature of the battlefield."
* Houston 1939 p199
"After 1400 we find the transitional type of armour which bridged the period between chain mail and full plate gradually disappears, and by 1410, the camail which filled the gap between the bascinet and the body-armour, has given place to the gorget. The body itself is defended also by plate armour so that instead of the jupon, gambeson and hauberk-of-mail we find the cuirass now covering breast and back with the brayettes or taces which form a short petticoat or skirt of steel hoops. The armpits are now defended by roundels or palettes and the coudières at the elbows have become larger and developed flanges to guard the inner elbow. Epaulières still cover the shoulders, and the bascinet continues to be worn as a headpiece though slightly modified in form. The leg-armour is little altered from that in use in the previous period."
Costume
* Boutell 1907 p125
"The civil costume had just undergone a thorough change. The long double robe, the coat and surcoat (cotte and surcot) which had been worn in France since the time of Philip Augustus, had given place to the pourpoint, a kind of paletot, fitting tight to the figure buttoned from top to bottom in front, without any collar, provided with half-sleeves, padded and quilted, and swelling over the chest. As we see in the monuments of the period, under this pourpoint the coat, or cotte, was still worn; but now it had become a narrow and short blouse, in comparison with its earlier form and proportions, although still its sleeves might be longer than those of the pourpoint, and it might descend lower than that garment."
* Wilcox 1958 p64
"The man's tunic changed into the pourpoint, a quilted jacket, short of skirt, the body laced either front or back and worn with long, fitted stockings or tights. When the pourpoint was sleeveless, it was worn under the jacket. The later carefully pleated tunic worn by all fashionable Europe originated in Flanders."
Dagger
* Seward 1978 p52
"The basic weapon of both English and French was a long straight sword, hung in front at first but later moved to the left side and balanced by a short dagger on the right (called a misericord or 'mercy' on account of being used to dispatch the mortally wounded)."
* Woosnam-Savage 2017 p44
"Daggers of various forms, such as the baselard were carried by civilians as well as knights. Daggers were used in close combat and were used to dispatch the wounded, hence the possibly generic term misericorde for any type of dagger or knife used in such a manner, such as at the battle of Rosebeke (1382):
'Hardly were [the Flemings] down than the pillagers came slipping in between the men-at-arms, carrying long knives with which they finished them off. They had no more mercy on them than if they had been dogs.' Jean Froissart, Chroniques, Book II, 1388"
* Fryer 1969 p66
"Misericord A narrow-bladed, sharp-pointed dagger, made to penetrate the joints or vizor of plate armour and give the coup de grâce to a fallen adversary."
* Bennett 1998 p2167
"misericorde dagger used to strike a final blow and mercifully kill a seriously wounded opponent; also considered to be a last resort weapon. It was widely used from the 14th century, and was normally held with the point projecting downwards from the hand.
"The misericorde was usually a straight dagger without a guard; the blade had a triangular section and only one cutting edge. From effigies it seems to have commonly been carried on a chain from the belt on the right side. Misericordes were often decorated with such scenes as the 'Dance of Death'."
* Bull 1991 p63
"Daggers were commonly worn on the belt opposite the sword. Some were matched to the sword with straight quillons; the 'ballock' dagger was equipped with a phallus-like grip with round lobes below, and the 'baselard' had a cruciform pommel and a diamond-section blade."
Knife
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Pouch
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